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Advancing listening technologies

Our researchers explore the neural basis of listening to advance the design and implementation of listening technologies for hearing devices.

Human systems neuroscience approach to understanding the listening brain

Advances in imaging technologies have greatly enhanced our ability to probe human brain function. However, imaging techniques favour a cortico-centric perspective at a time when subcortical structures and efferent pathways – so-called 'listening loops' – are increasingly understood to be critical to the act of listening.

We use a systems neuroscience approach to understanding the listening brain. We have assembled non-invasive assays to study brain circuits critical to listening, including electro- and magneto-encephalography (EEG/MEG) to assess fast electrical activity in the cortex and functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) slower changes in cortical haemodynamics. We also use transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) to modulate brain circuits involved in learned listening, combining these techniques with measures of activity in subcortical brain centres and the inner ear to explore the role of neural feedback circuits in active listening tasks.

These objective measures of brain function are complemented with behavioural biomarkers of listening including speech understanding – once a uniquely human skill but increasingly employed in machine listening – to develop a complete understanding of how humans listen.

  • Which brain circuits contribute to listening in complex environments?
  • What happens to the listening brain when hearing is compromised?
  • How do people, who identify as neurodivergent, experience listening?

Learn more about the projects we are undertaking in this area, and the research teams involved in them.

Neuroplasticity-informed prediction of speech and hearing outcomes in cochlear implant users

Funded by: Macquarie University Cochlear Research joint Fund

When hearing is lost, the brain adapts by reorganising how it processes sensory information. After a cochlear implant (CI) is introduced, the brain must adjust again to make use of the restored auditory input. These brain changes are thought to contribute to the large differences seen in speech understanding outcomes among CI users.

In this project, we will investigate the feasibility of using functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) – a non-invasive, cochlear implant (CI)–compatible technique – to functionally map brain activity in CI recipients before and after implantation. Our goal is to develop a simple, non-invasive assay that can help set realistic expectations and inform individualised rehabilitation strategies.

  • Dr Heivet Hernandez Perez (Project Lead)
  • Professor David McAlpine (Chief Investigator)
  • Dr Fadwa Alnafjan
  • Ms Hannah Tay (MRes/PhD candidate)
  • Dr Phillip Chang (Hearing Implants Australia)
  • Ms Dina Vazouras (Hearing Implants Australia)
  • Ms Lilly Leaver (Macquarie University/Hearing Implants Australia)
  • Professor Andrej Kral (Medical University Hanover, Germany)
  • Dr Amanda Fullerton (Cochlear)
  • Dr Zachary Smith (Cochlear)
  • Dr Joerg Encke

Our research partners:

  • Cochlear Ltd

Contact: heivet.hernandez-perez@mq.edu.au

Forming and following auditory objects

Funded by: William Demant Foundation

Despite extensive investigations into acoustic features underpinning the perception of auditory objects, neural mechanisms underlying object formation remain poorly understood. This program aims to:

  • determine how the auditory brain represents objects from acoustic backgrounds
  • investigate how the perception and neural representation of auditory objects varies in listeners with hearing impairment
  • consider how altering the precision of foreground cues influences the perception and neural representation of auditory objects
  • examine how accurate representation of the statistical structure of background sounds facilitates the formation of auditory objects and improves listening abilities in challenging acoustic environments
  • use fNIRS neuroimaging technology to investigate brain mechanisms responsible for the forming and following of auditory objects.

Our research partners:

  • Oticon

Contact: joerg.encke@mq.edu.au

Exploring how human listeners learn new and familiar environments

Funded by: EMCR, Macquarie University

When people listen to speech, they not only extract its meaning but also unconsciously learn how the sound interacts with the surrounding environment. This allows them to adapt to a room’s acoustic characteristics, improving speech understanding over time or when returning to a familiar space.

However, reverberation can also hinder comprehension, especially in noisy or complex environments, by distorting speech signals and masking important cues.

This project investigates how different types of reverberant environments support or interfere with speech understanding, and how short- and long-term exposure influences the use of spatial cues for speech perception and sound localisation.

Contact: heivet.hernandez-perez@mq.edu.au

Listen and learn – Statistical learning and the adapting auditory brain in humans listeners

Funded by: Australian Research Council

Statistical learning refers to the automatic, often incidental, extraction of regularities and patterns from external stimuli or environments. This form of learning underpins a wide range of cognitive and perceptual abilities, from language acquisition to the detection of rapid changes in sensory input.

This project investigates auditory statistical learning in humans through a combination of psychoacoustic tasks and physiological measures, including electroencephalography (EEG), functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS), and non-invasive brain stimulation techniques such as transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS).

The overarching goal is to uncover the neural circuits that support auditory statistical learning. In particular, the project aims to translate well-established physiological mechanisms from animal models – such as neural adaptation – into the statistical learning framework in humans.

Outputs:

  • Hernández-Pérez Heivet, Monaghan Jessica JM, Mikiel-Hunter Jason, Traer James, Sowman Paul F, McAlpine David (2025) Listening to the room: disrupting activity of dorsolateral prefrontal cortex impairs learning of room acoustics in human listeners eLife 14:RP107041.
  • Hernandez Perez, H.*, Mikiel-Hunter, J., Traer, Monaghan, J.J, Sowman, P., & McAlpine, D. (2025). Listening to the Room: Disrupting Activity of Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex Impairs Learning of Room Acoustics. Association for Research Otolaryngology, Orlando, US: pp 500-501.
  • Kurt Shulver*, David McAlpine, Heivet Hernandez-Perez. (2025). Disrupting Perceptual Anchoring to Pure-Tone Sequences in Human Listeners. Association for Research Otolaryngology, Orlando, US. SU21: pp 296-297.
  • Hernandez Perez, H.*, Monaghan, J.J., Mikiel-Hunter, J., Traer, Sowman, P., & McAlpine, D. (2023). Perceptual adaptation and meta-adaptation in human listeners under transcranial magnetic stimulation. (2024). Hanse-Wissenschaftskolleg. Institute for Advanced Study. Workshop. Auditory Efferents: Closing the Loops (s). Delmenhorst, Germany. (6).
  • Fuentes, Juan Andrés Mucarquer (2024). Hidden hearing loss and efficient information representation in the mammalian auditory midbrain. Macquarie University. Thesis. https://doi.org/10.25949/24330997.v1
  • Shulver, K.*, McAlpine, D., Badcock, N.A. and Hernandez-Perez, H., (2023). Disrupting perceptual anchoring to pure-tone sequences in human listeners. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, Sydney, Australia. 154(4_supplement), pp. A237-A237.
  • Mehta, D.*, Shulver, K., McAlpine, D., & Hernandez-Perez, H. (2023). Perceptual anchoring to auditory textures in human listeners. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, Sydney, Australia. 154(4_supplement), A237-A237.
  • Hernandez-Perez, H.*, Monaghan, J.J., Mikiel-Hunter, J., Traer, Sowman, P., & McAlpine, D. (2023). Listening to the Room: Disrupting Activity of Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex Impairs Learning of Room Acoustics. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, Sydney, Australia. 4aPP4.
  • Shulver, K. D., & Badcock, N. A. (2021). Chasing the anchor: A systematic review and meta-analysis of perceptual anchoring deficits in developmental dyslexia. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 64(8), 3289-3302.
  • Heivet Hernandez-Perez*, David McAlpine, Jessica Monaghan. (2020). Statistical learning in rooms under transcranial magnetic stimulation. Association for Research Otolaryngology, San Jose, US. PS 753: Vol43, pp479-480.

Contact: heivet.hernandez-perez@mq.edu.au

Listen and learn – subcortical-cortical interactions in the emergence of statistical learning in animal models

Funded by: Einstein Foundation Berlin grant number EVF-2021-618

This project explores the role of feedforward and feedback pathways in learning the structure of acoustic environments. In an awake animal model, it records activity across cortical and subcortical brain circuits to explore how neurons adapt to the evolving distribution of sound features. It also uses optogenetic tools to modulate activity in different brain circuits in order to explore the role of specific neuron types and cortical layers on sensory adaptation.

Our research partners:

  • Neuroscience Research Center, Charité – Universitätsmedizin
  • Bernstein Center for Computational Neuroscience

Outputs:

Contact: irene.onorato@charite.de

Exploring spatial hearing in the human auditory cortex using functional infrared spectroscopy

This study set out to answer a fundamental question: How does the human auditory cortex represent small timing differences between the information arising from the two ears (interaural time differences, or ITDs) that help us locate sounds in space?

Specifically, we want to explore whether the human auditory cortex uses a coding strategy similar to that observed in other mammals, or whether it relies on a more detailed and explicit neural code unique to humans.

We will use functional Near Infrared Spectroscopy (fNIRS), a safe, non-invasive brain imaging method. fNIRS measures changes in blood oxygenation to infer brain activity while participants listen to sounds containing carefully controlled ITDs.

Our research partners:

  • Muroc Capital

Contact: heivet.hernandez-perez@mq.edu.au

Australian future hearing initiative

Funded by: Google and Macquarie University

The AFHI is a collaboration led by Google Australia and Macquarie University to advance artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning (ML) applications for personalised hearing healthcare. Using a biophysically-realistic computational model of human hearing as our 'normal hearing' template, we are training novel, ML-based amplification and stimulation strategies for hearing aids and cochlear implants that should lead to auditory nerve activity that more closely matches normative patterns. By overcoming many of current limitations in hearing assistive devices to combat individuals specific hearing problems, we hope to offer customisable hearing assistive devices to suit everyone's aural needs.

Our research partners:

  • Google
  • Cochlear
  • NextSense
  • Shepherd Centre

Outputs:

  • Hosseini, M. (2024, June). Developing novel electrical stimulation strategies for cochlear implant users based on a model of the healthy human cochlea. Paper presented at VCCA 2024.
  • Salimi, N. (2024, June). Developing a novel hearing aid framework using machine learning and a model of the impaired cochlea. Paper presented at VCCA 2024.
  • Mikiel-Hunter, J. (2024, June). Using CARFAC-JAX, a fast, differentiable model of the human cochlea, to efficiently fit personalized hearing loss. Paper presented at VCCA 2024.
  • Hosseini, M. (2025, August). Biomimetic cochlear-implant coding: A strategy employing a cochlear model and deep neural network. Paper presented at VCCA 2025.
  • Salimi, N. (2025, August). A physiologically explainable machine-learning framework for hearing-aid development. Paper presented at VCCA 2025.
  • Mikiel-Hunter, J. (2025, August). Tuning a version of CARFAC cochlear model that includes different spontaneous-rate classes of auditory nerve fibers. Paper presented at VCCA 2025.
  • Hosseini, M. (2025, February). Developing personalised hearing models in Jax to train novel machine learning strategies for cochlear implant stimulation and hearing aid processing. Workshop conducted at ARO 2025.
  • Salimi, N. (2025, February). Developing a personalized hearing framework with CARFAC v3 and ANN based on performance on the categorical loudness scale and Quick-VC tests. Poster presented at ARO 2025.
  • Hosseini, M. (2025, February). Developing novel electrical stimulation strategies for cochlear implant users based on a model of the healthy human cochlea. Poster presented at ARO 2025.
  • Lyon, D. (2025, February). Introducing different spontaneous-rate classes of auditory nerve fibers to the CARFAC v3 cochlear model. Poster presented at ARO 2025.
  • Hosseini, M. (2025, July). A novel CI coding strategy based on a cochlear model and deep neural network. Paper presented at CIAP 2025.

Resources:

Contact: jason.mikiel-hunter@mq.edu.au

Participatory approach to neurodivergent research

Funded by: Martin Lee Innovation Fund

The NLB Progam undertakes a comprehensive exploration of listening through experiential, perception, and neural phenomenon. Our approach is grounded in participatory research and co-production, meaning neurodivergent people are involved in the design, interpretation, and application of this work. This is not only a matter of inclusion, but of epistemic integrity: to understand the listening brain, we must also listen to people – especially those whose experiences challenge existing models.

By combining objective, brain-based methods with qualitative and ecological insights, this program will build a new framework for understanding listening across neurotypes. This will support more inclusive practices in communication, education, clinical care, and technology design.

Contact: nlb_engagement@mq.edu.au

Autism and the adapting auditory brain

Funded by: Simons Foundation – SFARI – Grant RFA-873809

The project examines the auditory experiences of autistic people, focusing on how real-world soundscapes affect their everyday lives. We are investigating experiences of speech and phonemes in different acoustic environments, and how autistic people adapt to and process auditory textures.

By understanding autistic people's attributes, auditory perceptions and experiences, this project aims to:

  • determine relationships between autistic traits, auditory experience and diagnosable auditory conditions in autistic people
  • identify barriers from the acoustic environment in everyday life to desired participation for autistic people in the community
  • learn how we can better support autistic people with strategies and technologies to facilitate accessibility and desired opportunities in daily life.

Our research partners:

  • Autism MQ

Contact: bec.poulsen@mq.edu.au.

The shaping of sound: developmental and contextual factors that impact everyday listening in neurodivergent adults

Funded by: Martin Lee Innovation Fund

Neurodivergent (ND) individuals’ auditory perception is unique, marked by over and/or under-sensitivity, sensory overload, and differences with responses to stimuli (Poulsen et al., 2025). However, specificity around ND adults’ everyday listening experiences is lacking.

There is also limited knowledge of the effect of context, such as the impact of various sound environments, physical resources, emotions and the listener’s overall goal to the listening experience.

Additionally, knowledge of the impacts of early childhood experiences, which may be key to understanding how an individuals’ internal systems of perception are formed, are limited. A final aim is to understand what strategies lead to effective listening or communication.

Contact: chi.lo@mq.edu.au

Statistical learning of auditory textures in neurotypical and neurodivergent listeners

Funded by: Martin Lee Innovation Fund

This project investigates perceptual anchoring – the brain’s ability to prioritise repeated sounds over novel ones. We adapted a classic white noise paradigm to use synthetic auditory textures (wind, fire, insects, bubbling water). In Phase 1 (lab testing), neurotypical and autistic listeners judged sound excerpts across Anchor, Repeated Novel, and Novel conditions.

Early results suggest neurotypical listeners prioritise Anchors, while autistic listeners show more stimulus-dependent learning. In Phase 2 (remote testing), we are expanding participation to include more Neurodivergent listeners, aiming to improve accessibility and deepen understanding of auditory learning differences through inclusive, scalable research tools.

Outputs:

  • Heivet Hernandez Perez*, Divya Mehta, Kurt Shulver, Rebecca Poulsen, David McAlpine. (2025). Perceptual Anchoring to Auditory Textures in Neurotypical and Neurodivergent Listeners. Association for Research Otolaryngology, Orlando, US. SU183: pp441-442.
  • Mehta, D.*, Shulver, K., McAlpine, D., & Hernandez-Perez, H. (2023). Perceptual anchoring to auditory textures in human listeners. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, Sydney, Australia. 154(4_supplement), A237-A237.

Contact: heivet.hernandez-perez@mq.edu.au

Subjective and objective measures of hidden hearing loss (HLL) in human listeners

Funded by: Martin Lee Innovation Fund and Tinnitus UK

Many listeners report everyday hearing difficulties, particularly in noisy environments, despite having a normal audiogram. Evidence of such 'hidden hearing loss (HHL)' can be explained in animal models by noise-induced cochlear synaptopathy compensated for by elevated central gain, however, such evidence in humans remains elusive.

This project compares young adult populations with a high prevalence of tinnitus, noise exposure (such as musicians) and/or reported hearing speech-in-noise difficulties to a control or unaffected population to characterise the auditory self-reported, perceptual and physiological profile of these listeners.

Our research partners:

Outputs:

  • Faundez Astudillo, J. P., Hunter, J.-M., Monaghan, J., & McAlpine, D. (2025). The utility of physiological measures on the detection of hidden hearing loss in young adults. Audiology Australia 2025 Conference
  • Faundez Astudillo, J. P., Hampton, E., Naidoo, K., Shetty, M., Monaghan, J. J., Mikiel-Hunter, J., & McAlpine, D. (2023). Potential objective measures to assess the presence of hidden hearing loss in young adults with long-term exposure to loud music. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 154(4_supplement), A32-A32.

Contact: matthew.odonohue@mq.edu.au

Characterising cross-modal association learning in humans

Funded by: EMCR, Macquarie University

Human perception and action rely upon the ability to recognise objects and predict sensory consequences. Forming associations across sensory modalities is likely critical to this. For example, after hearing a dog bark, you can identify that the sound was produced by a dog and recall knowledge about the animal learned via other modalities such as vision (eg has four legs) and touch (eg feels furry).

Surprisingly, it is unclear how well humans can learn these cross-modal associations. The project aims to study this and to explore the extent to which it requires conscious or unconscious processing.

Contact: matthew.odonohue@mq.edu.au

Auditory processing and emotional distress in adults with ADHD

Funded by: Macquarie University (HDR / Faculty of Medicine, Health & Human Sciences) and Australian Research Council (Grant FL160100108)

This project investigates how adults with ADHD listen, how they process spatial sounds and how this relates to emotional distress, including stress, anxiety, and depression. Participants completed hearing tests, self-report measures of listening and wellbeing.

This study contributes to growing evidence that sensory processing differences play a role in ADHD and highlights the value of advanced auditory measures in understanding listening challenges in adults with ADHD.

Our research partners:

  • Woolcock Institute of Medical Research

Contact: paula.korczynska@hdr.mq.edu.au

Listening with hearing devices: Perceptual and brain mechanisms in Neurodivergent adults

Funded by: Macquarie University Cochlear Research joint Fund

This project investigates the perceptual and brain mechanisms that shape listening experiences in autistic and other neurodivergent adults – including those with tinnitus, hyperacusis, or sensory sensitivities – who use hearing devices.

Adopting a systems neuroscience approach that integrates behavioural and neuroimaging methods with participatory, co-designed frameworks, it places lived experience at the centre of every stage, from study design to interpretation.

By examining clinical, sensory, and neural factors that influence device use and auditory processing in complex environments, the project aims to advance more inclusive and personalised models of hearing care that better reflect diverse listening needs.

Our research partner:

  • Cochlear Ltd

Contact: heivet.hernandez-perez@mq.edu.au